In relation to meat, cooking reduces the amount of fat, peptides and vitamins while increasing the concentration of some minerals, e.g., Zn and Fe (particular in beef), while the effect on Ca and Mg is inconclusive [82,83]. Processed red meat contribution to dietary patterns and the associated cardio-metabolic outcomes. While several biomarkers exist and have been partially validated according to a currently proposed standard [104], additional work is needed for their full validation [88,89,95,96]. The outermost layer of every plant cell. Consequently, current knowledge indicates that fermentable dietary fibers and short-chain fatty acid-containing compounds can counteract the potential harmful effects in the colon associated with intake of processed meat. Thus, in the small intestine, approximately 23% of heme-iron is absorbed, whereas this is the case for only 28% of non-heme iron [27], and red meat therefore remains the best dietary source of iron [28]. Am J Clin Nutr. Estimates vary, but it takes around 7 kilos of grain to make one kilo of beef. We are experimenting with display styles that make it easier to read articles in PMC. HM reports working on projects, including the workshop associated with the present paper, where the Danish National Food Institute has received grants or financial support from the Levy Fund for Agriculture or the Danish Agriculture and Food Council. Interestingly, addition of calcium-rich milk minerals significantly reduced both the formation of unwanted N-nitroso compounds in the gastrointestinal tract when compared with ingestion of non-fortified processed meat and stimulated the formation of short-chain fatty acids in the colon [67]. There is a huge diversity of meat products of these types all around the world, but they share some common points that are of interest for their potential health outcomes: (1) they include a considerable strong dehydration, up to more than 50% weight loss for some products; (2) they imply significant chemical and biochemical transformation of meat components, including protein and lipid hydrolysis, protein and lipid oxidation and Maillard type reactions as most relevant ones; (3) the process for most of them includes the addition of sodium chloride and nitrates and/or nitrites; (4) most of them undergo extensive microbial transformations by different bacteria, mold and yeast species; this microbiota contributes to acidification, formation of nitrosomyoglobin, proteolysis, lipolysis and flavor formation, to mention their main roles. In alignment with this, meat constitutes an important part of the diet for the elderly to prevent age-related declines in muscle strength and frailty (sarcopenia). For processed meat, the difference is even higher (32%; 87 g/10 MJ for those with an unhealthy diet compared with 66 g/10 MJ along with the healthy diet). Without carnivorous stomach acids to kill the bacteria in meat, dining on animal flesh can give us food poisoning. On top of that, some of these new generated peptides show bioactive properties, mainly antihypertensive and antioxidative in hypertensive rats [52]. Our anterior teeth are not suited for tearing flesh or hide. [deleted] 8 yr. ago Humans need protein. Additionally, it seems that the meat product matrix may help probiotics to survive through the gastrointestinal tract [63]. Terms for automated texts/calls from PETA: http://peta.vg/txt. Lyngby, Denmark; kd.utd.doof@jemh, 4Danish Meat Research InstituteDMRI Technological Institute, DK-2630 Taastrup, Denmark; kd.ksigolonket@krl, 5Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, DK-1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; kd.uk.doof@ziuregroj, 6IPROCAR, University of Extremadura, E-10004 Caceres, Spain. These conclusions are corroborated by similar findings in several recent meta-analyses [12,86,87]. So-called enhanced meat, where the meat receives added water containing salt and is sold as fresh meat, is also within this category, although the consumer performs the cooking process. As a service to our readers, Harvard Health Publishing provides access to our library of archived content. The consumption of hydrolyzed proteins has been linked to other potential positive health outcomes, such as the regulation of bile acid metabolism [59] and induced satiety [60]. 2 Rudge, C. (1999). Hjerpsted J., Leedo E., Tholstrup T. Cheese intake in large amounts lowers LDL-cholesterol concentrations compared with butter intake of equal fat content. Typical products are the Italian Parma and the Spanish Iberico hams. Kurotani K, Nanri A, Goto A, Mizoue T, Noda M, Oba S, Kato M, Matsushita Y, Inoue M, Tsugane S; Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study Group. AA reports receiving research funding from Danish Dairy Research Foundation, Arla Food for Health, Danish Agriculture and Food Council, and Danish Pork Levy Fund, and a personal fee to participate in a workshop at the Danish Agriculture and Food Council. It's a rich source of protein, which provides health benefits for the body. And people who don't eat meat vegetarians generally eat fewer calories and less fat, weigh less, and have a lower risk of heart disease than nonvegetarians do. The methodological quality of the meta-analyses was mostly high, but the quality of evidence was low for unprocessed red meat, moderate for processed red meat and high only for processed meat and bacon. Collectively, this highlights the need for contemplating the profound effects that replacing a balanced omnivore diet with a vegan diet may have on mineral and vitamin status. A plant-based diet, which emphasizes fruits, vegetables, grains, beans, legumes and nuts, is rich in fiber, vitamins and other nutrients. High meat intake is not necessarily confounded by an unhealthy diet, e.g., low in fruit, vegetables, whole-grain and dietary fiber intake and high in sugar and alcohol [97]. Cow's milk contains about three times as much protein as human milk and almost 50 percent more fat. In meat, iron is complexed and present as heme-iron, which has a considerably higher bioavailability than non-heme-iron. Thanks to the culinary arts, the human gut had less work to do and became much smaller than the digestive system of a herbivorous ape. The anserine to carnosine ratio: An excellent discriminator between white and red meats consumed by free-living overweight participants of the PREVIEW study. By submitting this form, you are agreeing to our collection, storage, use, and disclosure of your personal info in accordance with our privacy policy as well as to receiving e-mails from us. do humans need meat scholarly articles Everybody Wayne Hsiung Tonight!Ezra Klein - Moral Horror Of Our Ageforty-six! The Most Important Influencer is. People in the study who ate the most red meat tended to die younger, and to die more often from cardiovascular disease and cancer. Biophys. The Best Diets for Cognitive Fitness, is yours absolutely FREE when you sign up to receive Health Alerts from Harvard Medical School. So, lack of calcium can be addressed by eating collard greens, or tofu, for instance. Americans have obediently cut their cholesterol intake to record lows. Most if not all humans can or could digest animal . Koopman R., Crombach N., Gijsen A.P., Walrand S., Fauquant J., Kies A.K., Lemosquet S., Saris W.H.M., Boirie Y., van Loon L.J.C. Corrin Radd March 5, 2013 at 8:47 pm - Reply. When consuming meals composed of both vegetables and meat, the meat factor promotes the absorption of non-heme iron from the plant products [30]. Nevertheless, when addressing fat in meat, an often overlooked fact is that meat originating from ruminants also contains conjugated linoleic acid and unique rumen-derived fatty acids such as branched-chain, vaccenic and rumenic acids, which exert physiological activities and thus have been associated with several positive health effects [33]. Attempts to reduce SFA in meat have resulted in several successful approaches to modulate the fatty acid composition of pork and beef through strategic feeding strategies [31]. Plus, red meat is rich in iron. Overall, the observational evidence for the effects of red meat on chronic disease is weak and methodological issues have downgraded the overall judgment, although the direction of the effect for colorectal cancer is quite consistent. Despite limited evidence of the nutritional necessity for meat, people behave very much as though it were a vital component of the diet. Gallego M., Mora L., Escudero E., Toldr F. Bioactive peptides and free amino acids profiles in different types of European dry-fermented sausages. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Epub 2013 May 7. Using a rat model, Thgersen and colleagues [67] recently investigated the effect of fortifying processed meat with calcium and inulin in combination or alone. You may notice problems with Wu G. Important roles of dietary taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine and 4-hydroxyproline in human nutrition and health. Dr. Richard Leakey, a renowned anthropologist, says, You cant tear flesh by hand, you cant tear hide by hand. Although vegans - who avoid meat, eggs, and fish - are at risk of nutritional deficiency problems, most experts agree that a wise choice of foods can ameliorate the problems. The authors have presented the scientific discussion framing this manuscript during the Expert Workshop Processed meat held in June 2020 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Other studies also found those with a higher intake of meat to have a less healthy eating pattern [98], suggesting that an effect may be due to the absence of dietary fiber or other plant components more than the intake of meat per se, exerting an effect of health parameters. Heres what we reveal when we speak, whether we mean to or not. Designing functional foods with bioactive polyphenols: Highlighting Lessons learned from original plant matrices. Gyro meat is higher in calories than some other types of meat, such as chicken. Salt and nitrite diffuse into the interior of the meat and prolong shelf life by lowering water activity and by means of a direct antimicrobial effect of nitrite. Until fairly recently, only the wealthiest people could afford to feed, raise, and slaughter animals for meat,but with the rise of the modern middle class, consumption of meat in the U.S. has almost doubled over the last 100 years. Nevertheless, other compounds, e.g., ubiquinone (coenzyme Q10) with health properties tend to decrease or even disappear during the ripening process [49]. An international team of researchers conducted five systematic reviews that looked at the effects of red meat and processed meat on multiple health issues, such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and premature death. However, these ruminant fatty acids are trans-fats that could potentially cause adverse effects as well; still, a number of Cochrane-based meta-analyses indicate an overall neutral effect of ruminant fats on health in human intervention studies [34,35,36,37]. Rahbar A.R., Ostovar A., Derakhshandeh-Rishehri S.-M., Janani L., Rahbar A. Potential health hazards of eating red meat. Neuenschwander and colleagues found a positive association in doseresponse studies of processed red meat (hazard ratio 1.44; 95% CI: 1.181.76), processed meat (hazard ratio 1.37; 95% CI: 1.221.54), and bacon (hazard ratio 2.07; 95% CI: 1.403.05) intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in an umbrella review of prospective cohort studies [93]. Phil America Launches Animal-Friendly Streetwear Collection With PETA, Meet the Bertie 5 and Other Animals Helped by PETA Fieldworkers, PETA Opposes Chinese Companys Dangerous Plans for Monkey Warehouse in Florida. The composition of diet and meals are therefore important determinants of the gut environment. The current recommendations to reduce SFA intake fail to take into account the different effects of SFAs from different sources [9,10,11]. New York: Basic. Were actually more likely to consume too much protein, resulting in nutritional deficiencies or insufficient fiber. However, Dr. Hu says that you don't need to eat red meat to get these essential nutrients. When assessing results in meta-analyses, the data are only as valid as each individual study. Humans are meant to be opportunistic eaters, and back when we were still barely removed from animals we subsisted on fruits, nuts, and probably some meat. West E.C., Castenmiller J.J. Quantification of the SLAMENGHI factors for carotenoid bioavailability and bioconversion. Food matrix effects are important, but meal composition, as well as interactions between foods in the meal, also affect bio-accessibility and bioavailability. Frustrated Women and Hopeful Men: Is There a Connection? Red and processed meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. There is evidence of several mechanisms for the observed adverse effects that might be involved, however, their individual role is not defined at present. Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis. Most humans are revolted by the sight of blood, intestines, and raw flesh and cant tolerate hearing the screams of animals being ripped apart. eCollection 2022. In addition, it can be questioned whether corrections for too many confounders will interfere with the actual effects examined. Plant-Based Dietary Patterns versus Meat Consumption and Prevalence of Impaired Glucose Intolerance and Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study in Australian Women. There is emerging evidence that the specific nutrients in meat may not cause an effect per se, but that the overall composition of the diet and the matrix from the meals are likely to modulate or even cause the observed adverse effects. We can get all of the nutrients for optimal health from a high-quality diet that limits or contains no dairy. True, vitamin B-12 is an exception: It's found only in meat, eggs and dairy. Toldr F., Reig M., Aristoy M.-C., Mora L. Generation of bioactive peptides during food processing. ); kd.ovon@ara (A.A.), 2Department of Food Science, Aarhus University, DK-8200 Aarhus N, Denmark; kd.ua.doof@martreb.cennah, 3National Food Institute, Division of Food Technology, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Hndel M.N., Cardoso I., Rasmussen K.M., Rohde J.F., Jacobsen R., Nielsen S.M., Christensen R., Heitmann B.L. An official website of the United States government. The Danish Agriculture and Food Council funded the workshop and the publication fee. Furthermore, it has also been shown that including butyrylated starch in the diet enhances short-chain fatty acid content in the gut and attenuates the formation of unwanted O6-methyl-2-deoxyguanosine adducts, which is known as toxic and mutagenic modification, and found to be associated with high red meat intake [71]. First of all, as a consequence of dehydration, nutrient density notably increases, so that meat products processed that way have a higher content of some nutrients in which meat is rich, such as proteins, iron, zinc, niacin, pyridoxine or cobalamin. In 2013/2014 the percentage distribution of protein intake from animal-based products in adults aged 19-64 was as follows: 'meat and meat products' (35%), 'dairy' (14%), 'fish' (7%) and 'eggs' (4%) (see Figure 1 ). Intriguingly, cohort studies also point at a high calcium intake having a positive effect on colon health [73,74]. Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2012: Integrating Nutrition and Physical Activity. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Meat contains several vitamins and minerals, as well as all essential amino acids, making it an excellent protein source [1]. But is this true or just an excuse to ignore the horrific ways in which animals are killed for food? Corpet E.D., Pierre F. Point: From animal models to prevention of colon cancer. Jo-Anne McArthur / We Animals. Only by also assuming reduced meat and dairy consumption do we find agricultural emission levels that do not take more than half of the total emissions space in 2070. Dr. Hu suggests that people focus not so much on actual serving sizes, but rather on red meat's placement in meals. To produce wet-cured products of minced meat, e.g., cooked sausages, salt and nitrite is mixed with minced meat, added water, spices and ascorbate, filled in casings, and cooked (optionally smoked). Nina Rica Wium Geiker, Hanne Christine Bertram, [], and Arne Astrup. The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein is a modest 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. Delgado J., Ansorena D., Van Hecke T., Astiasarn I., De Smet S., Estvez M. Meat lipids, NaCl and carnitine: Do they unveil the conundrum of the association between red and processed meat intake and cardiovascular diseases? Endocr. Received 2021 Jun 8; Accepted 2021 Jun 29. Thus, it has been shown that 24-month ripened Iberian ham contains higher levels of highly active angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity than dry-cured hams processed for shorter times [54]. Subgroup analyses showed a significant association between processed meat intake and heart failure among Europeans (relative risk 1.33 per 50 g/day, 95% CI = 1.151.54), but not among Americans. Wedekind R., Keski-Rahkonen P., Robinot N., Viallon V., Rothwell J.A., Boutron-Ruault M.C., Aleksandrova K., Wittenbecher C., Schulze M.B., Halkjr J. Pepper Alkaloids and Processed Meat Intake: Results from a Randomized Trial and the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Cohort. With meat being compositionally equivalent to human skeletal muscle, it supplies us with amino acids, having an optimal composition for the support of protein synthesis for building and maintaining muscle. Gut bacteria selectively promoted by dietary fibers alleviate type 2 diabetes. Burnett D.D., Legako J.F., Phelps K.J., Gonzalez J.M. This was also observed in an Irish study where a high intake of processed meat was associated with a low intake of fruit, vegetables, fish and whole grain, indicating a less healthy diet [94]. Plus, get a FREE copy of the Best Diets for Cognitive Fitness. [1] [2] Chao A., Thun M.J., Connell C.J., McCullough M.L., Jacobs E.J., Flanders W.D., Rodriguez C., Sinha R., Calle E.E. Lippi and colleagues found no clear association between red meat consumption and ischemic heart disease in a systematic review of prospective cohort and casecontrol studies due to the large heterogeneity of the criteria used for defining red meat and diagnosing ischaemic heart disease [91]. Our chimpanzee-like ancestors were mostly vegetarian, judging from the diet of modern chimpanzees that subsist mainly on fruit, leaves, and nuts, with a rare morsel of hunted meat. Cell Biol. Hndel and colleagues performed an umbrella review of systematic reviews on associations between processed meat intake and morbidity and mortality of chronic diseases [14]. Do humans need meat? government site. Numerous studies have shown that meat is not ideal for the human body and may actually be making us sick and killing us. Schwingshackl L., Schwedhelm C., Hoffmann G., Knppel S., Iqbal K., Andriolo V., Bechthold A., Schlesinger S., Boeing H. Food Groups and Risk of Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies. "But we have sharp canines!" Sure, and a Gorillas is 10x sharper, but their diet is plant based. Food D. Frida Food Data. Nigel Barber, Ph.D., is an evolutionary psychologist as well as the author of Why Parents Matter and The Science of Romance, among other books. Processed meat intake and incidence of colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Other types of added probiotic bacteria have difficulties in surviving in the dry-sausage environment. While all these changes are directed to obtain a shelf-stable flavorful product with a particular chewy but tender texture, as a side effect, their nutritional and health outcomes may also be significantly affected. Saturated fats and health: A reassessment and proposal for food-based recommendations: JACC state-of-the-art review. Liu D., Chen X., Huang J., Huang M., Zhou G. Generation of bioactive peptides from duck meat during post-mortem aging. Molecular mechanisms underlying the action of carcinogens in gastric cancer with a glimpse into targeted therapy. The earliest clear evidence of humans cooking. 10 (The study's main author, though, has been heavily criticized for having ties to the meat industry. In spite of what the Annals of Internal Medicine study suggests, Dr. Hu says that an accumulated body of evidence shows a clear link between high intake of red and processed meats and a higher risk for heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and premature death. Wet curing of entire pieces, e.g., cooked ham/loin and bacon, typically involves the use of needle injection of brines containing salt, nitrite, ascorbate and often also phosphates. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, most Americans get plenty of protein without paying special attention to what they eat. About 200,000 years ago, the first hearths appeared, and there is genetic evidence that the human brain began to burn a great deal of energy (1). Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. eCollection 2022. This may have been caused by published meta-analyses failing to show a significant overall effect and geographical differences with significant effects observed in Europe but not in the Americas or Asia. Astrup A., Bertram H.C., Bonjour J.-P., De Groot L.C., Otto M.C.D.O., Feeney E.L., Garg M.L., Givens I., Kok F.J., Krauss R.M., et al. Acta Mol. Meat only is a workable diet, if it is fresh and you eat all the parts. Czerwonka M., Tokarz A. For example, a 3-ounce serving has about 45% of the Daily Value (DV) of protein and 35% of the DV for B12. But the message the rest of us often get is that our daily protein intake is too high. In fact, meat hydrolysates have been shown to increase the release of cholecystokinin [61], a gut peptide hormone inducing satiety: this may lead to smaller and less frequent meals and eventually to a lower dietary intake. Risk-of-bias and heterogeneity analyses indicate that the observed link between red and processed meat and an increased risk of disease seen in meta-analyses of observational studies may be due to confounders [12,13,14,15,16]. LK reports receiving a personal fee to participate in a workshop at the Danish Agriculture and Food Council. Thus, comparing disease risk in groups with high and low meat intake without corrections for dietary quality will inevitably be a comparison of unhealthy and healthy diets if no or inappropriate corrections for dietary quality are made. Iron in red meatfriend or foe. Epub 2011 Aug 10. Zhao Z., Feng Q., Yin Z., Shuang J., Bai B., Yu P., Guo M., Zhao Q. Here's a look at the main issues and questions regarding the role of red and processed meats in your diet. Vieira A., Abar L., Chan D., Vingeliene S., Polemiti E., Stevens C., Greenwood D., Norat T. Foods and beverages and colorectal cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies, an update of the evidence of the WCRF-AICR Continuous Update Project. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . Pedersen A.N., Christensen T., Matthiessen J., Knudsen V.K., Srensen M.R., Biltoft-Jensen A.P., Hinsch H.-J., Ygil K.H., Krup K., Saxholt E. Biltoft-Jensen A.P., Krup K., Christensen T., Eriksen K., Ygil K.H., Fagt S. Knudsen V.K., Fagt S., Trolle E., Matthiessen J., Groth M.V., Biltoft-Jensen A.P., Srensen M.R., Pedersen A.N. Epub 2016 Sep 6. The trouble with meat: an ambiguous food. To produce fermented sausages, salt is mixed with minced meat followed by a drying and fermentation period. In younger and physically active subjects, meat protein intake was recently documented to have direct beneficial effects on body composition and muscle strength [21]. On the other hand, their presence in foods may lead to the formation of carcinogenic N-nitrosamines. Cuparencu C., Pratic G., Hemeryck L.Y., Harsha P.S.C.S., Noerman S., Rombouts C., Xi M., Vanhaecke L., Hanhineva K., Brennan L., et al. Time for a New Approach to Reducing Cardiovascular Disease: Is Limitation on Saturated Fat and Meat Consumption Still Justified? Filling the Gaps - Justin Marceau (legal scholar). On the other hand, participants that followed a diet consisting of processed meats, organ meats, eggs, and highly processed foods were at a 72% higher risk of heart failure. During maturation, some processed meat products develop a specific microbiota, forming probiotic metabolites with physiological and biological effects yet unidentified, while the concentration of nutrients also increases. The salting process is followed by a drying and ripening period, which runs for several month to years before the product is ready for consumption. So, ensuring they eat meat at least once or twice each week can have a huge impact on their whole existence. Evaluation of dietary intake in Danish adults by means of an index based on food-based dietary guidelines. 2013 Nov;110(10):1910-8. doi: 10.1017/S0007114513001128. Valenzuela P.L., Mata F., Morales J.S., Castillo-Garca A., Lucia A. There are no firm studies that have shown nutritional or health advantages from eating organic or grass-fed beef. Shifting from saturated fatty acid-based to food-based dietary guidelines for cardiovascular health. Are we really supposed to eat meat? 2011 Oct;94(4):1088-96. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.111.018978. Inguglia E.S., Zhang Z., Tiwari B.K., Kerry J.P., Burgess C.M. Restrictive recommendations should not be applied to subjects above about 70 years of age, as the studies quoted herein did not examine this age group, and the inclusion of sufficient protein supply (e. g. in the form of meat) is particularly important in the elderly. with at least one of the words. 7 Metabolic changes in schizophrenia and human brain evolution. Zinc is difficult to consume in adequate amounts in diets low in animal-based foods. We never considered the impact of these actions on the animals involved. In conclusion, meat is a source of high-quality proteins, minerals and vitamins and other compounds, difficult to obtain in sufficient amount from other sources. Combined markers to assess meat intakeHuman metabolomic studies of dis-covery and validation. These people also tended to weigh more, exercise less, smoke tobacco more, and drink more alcohol than healthier people in the study. In addition to the higher availability of heme-iron, meat also contains other, yet unidentified, factors increasing iron absorption from other foods (also known as the meat factor) [29,30]. Cell Oncol (Dordr). Smoke contains numerous components that inhibit bacterial growth and prevent lipid oxidation, which explains the positive effect on shelf life. Meat and Human HealthCurrent Knowledge and Research Gaps, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). Trying to lower stubbornly high LDL cholesterol? . 4 De Garine, I. This didnt turn our ancestors into carnivores but rather allowed early humans to survive in areas and during periods in which plant foods were unavailable or scarce. Validation of biomarkers of food intakeCritical assessment of candidate biomarkers. FOIA do humans need meat scholarly articles. 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